Introduction
Methods
AI in intelligent assistance and robotic autonomy
Human vs. Autonomous Robotic Surgeon | ||
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Level 0 No Automation Traditional surgery: Human performs all surgical tasks; includes open, laparoscopic, and “master–slave” robotic surgical methods | Level 1 Some Assistance e.g. Intraoperative image guidance, augmented reality rendering; human surgeon still performs all surgical tasks | Level 2 Partial Automation Reduced required level of human input, but human surgeon still performs majority of surgical tasks |
Level 3 Conditional Automation e.g. Automated bone drilling to prespecified depth with human setup; robot can perform certain procedural steps without human input | Level 4 High Automation e.g. Automated skin closure or lymph node dissection; Robot capable of performing most, if not all parts of a complex procedure with minimal human input | Level 5 Complete Automation e.g. Surgical robot that could perform an urgent cholecystectomy during a space flight; Robot is making all surgical decisions with no human input |